Makindo Medical Notes

The stomach is a muscular organ located on the left side of the upper abdomen. It plays a critical role in the digestive system, responsible for storing and breaking down food, and initiating digestion. Understanding gastric anatomy and physiology is essential for comprehending the digestive processes and addressing related medical conditions.

Anatomy of the Stomach

• Regions of the Stomach:
  • Cardia: The region where the oesophagus connects to the stomach, through the lower oesophageal sphincter.
  • Fundus: The dome-shaped region above the body of the stomach, often filled with air.
  • Body: The main central region of the stomach where most of the digestive process occurs.
  • Antrum: The lower portion of the stomach that grinds and mixes food, preparing it for the small intestine.
  • Pylorus: The region connecting the stomach to the duodenum, containing the pyloric sphincter which regulates the passage of chyme into the small intestine.
• Layers of the Stomach Wall:
  • Mucosa: The innermost layer that contains gastric glands producing stomach acid and digestive enzymes.
  • Submucosa: A supportive layer containing blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue.
  • Muscularis: A layer of muscle fibers arranged in three layers (longitudinal, circular, and oblique) that help in the mechanical digestion of food.
  • Serosa: The outermost layer that covers the stomach and provides structural support.

Physiology of the Stomach

• Gastric Secretions:
  • Hydrochloric Acid (HCl): Secreted by parietal cells, it lowers the pH of the stomach, aiding in protein digestion and killing bacteria.
  • Pepsinogen: Secreted by chief cells, it is converted to pepsin in the acidic environment, which breaks down proteins into peptides.
  • Mucus: Secreted by mucous cells, it protects the stomach lining from the acidic environment.
  • Intrinsic Factor: Also secreted by parietal cells, it is essential for vitamin B12 absorption in the small intestine.
  • Gastrin: A hormone produced by G cells that stimulates the secretion of gastric acid.
• Mechanical Digestion:
  • The muscular layers of the stomach contract rhythmically to mix and break down food, forming a semi-liquid mixture called chyme.
• Regulation of Gastric Function:
  • Neural Control: The enteric nervous system and autonomic nervous system regulate gastric secretions and motility.
  • Hormonal Control: Hormones such as gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin (CCK) play crucial roles in regulating stomach function.

Gastric Disorders

• Gastritis:
  • Inflammation of the stomach lining caused by factors such as infection, certain medications, or excessive alcohol consumption.
• Peptic Ulcers:
  • Sores that develop on the stomach lining or the first part of the small intestine, often due to H. pylori infection or prolonged NSAID use.
• Gastro-oesophageal Reflux Disease (GORD):
  • A chronic condition where stomach acid frequently flows back into the oesophagus, causing irritation and discomfort.
• Gastric Cancer:
  • A malignancy that arises from the lining of the stomach, often associated with risk factors like H. pylori infection, smoking, and dietary factors.

Diagnosis and Treatment

• Diagnostic Methods:
  • Endoscopy: A procedure that uses a flexible tube with a camera to visualize the stomach lining.
  • Barium Swallow: An X-ray imaging test that evaluates the oesophagus, stomach, and small intestine.
  • Biopsy: The removal of a small tissue sample for microscopic examination.
  • Blood Tests: Used to detect infections, anaemia, and other related conditions.
• Treatment Options:
  • Medications: Antacids, proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), H2 receptor blockers, and antibiotics for H. pylori infection.
  • Lifestyle Modifications: Dietary changes, weight management, and avoiding triggers such as alcohol and smoking.
  • Surgical Interventions: Procedures like gastrectomy for severe cases of ulcers or gastric cancer.

Summary

The stomach plays a vital role in digestion, involving both mechanical and chemical processes to break down food and prepare it for absorption. Understanding the anatomy and physiology of the stomach is essential for diagnosing and treating various gastric disorders. Proper diagnosis, treatment, and lifestyle modifications can effectively manage these conditions, improving overall digestive health.

Overview of Acid Secretion in the Stomach

Acid secretion in the stomach is a crucial component of the digestive process. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) produced by the parietal cells in the gastric glands helps break down food, activate digestive enzymes, and protect against pathogens. Understanding the physiology of acid secretion is essential for managing conditions such as peptic ulcers and GERD.

Mechanism of Acid Secretion

• Parietal Cells:
  • Located in the gastric glands of the stomach lining, primarily in the body and fundus of the stomach.
  • Responsible for secreting hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factor.
• Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Secretion:
  • HCl is produced by the parietal cells through the action of the enzyme H⁺,K⁺-ATPase (proton pump).
  • The proton pump exchanges intracellular hydrogen ions (H⁺) for extracellular potassium ions (K⁺).
  • Chloride ions (Cl^-) are transported into the stomach lumen through chloride channels.
  • Water (H₂O) dissociates into hydrogen (H⁺) and hydroxide (OH^-) ions within the parietal cell. The H⁺ ions are secreted into the stomach lumen, while the OH^- ions combine with carbon dioxide (CO₂) to form bicarbonate (HCO₃^-).
  • Bicarbonate is then exchanged for chloride ions on the basolateral membrane, leading to the alkaline tide in the blood after a meal.

Regulation of Acid Secretion

• Neural Regulation:
  • Parasympathetic nervous system via the vagus nerve stimulates acid secretion through the release of acetylcholine (ACh).
  • ACh binds to muscarinic receptors (M3) on parietal cells, activating the proton pump.
• Hormonal Regulation:
  • Gastrin:
    • Produced by G cells in the antrum of the stomach and duodenum.
    • Stimulates parietal cells to secrete HCl by binding to the gastrin/cholecystokinin B (CCK-B) receptors.
  • Histamine:
    • Produced by enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cells in the stomach lining.
    • Histamine binds to H₂ receptors on parietal cells, enhancing HCl secretion.
  • Somatostatin:
    • Produced by D cells in the stomach, duodenum, and pancreas.
    • Inhibits acid secretion by reducing the release of gastrin, histamine, and directly inhibiting parietal cells.
• Local Factors:
  • Prostaglandins (e.g., PGE₂) play a protective role by inhibiting acid secretion and stimulating the production of mucus and bicarbonate.
  • The presence of food and distension of the stomach stimulate acid secretion through local reflexes.

Phases of Gastric Acid Secretion

• Cephalic Phase:
  • Triggered by the sight, smell, taste, or thought of food.
  • Mediated by the vagus nerve, accounting for about 30% of total acid secretion.
• Gastric Phase:
  • Initiated by the presence of food in the stomach.
  • Accounts for about 60% of total acid secretion, stimulated by distension and the presence of amino acids and peptides.
• Intestinal Phase:
  • Begins when chyme enters the small intestine.
  • Accounts for about 10% of total acid secretion, primarily inhibitory to prevent excessive acidity in the intestine.

Disorders Related to Acid Secretion

• Gastro-oesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD):
  • Caused by the reflux of stomach acid into the oesophagus, leading to irritation and inflammation.
  • Symptoms include heartburn, regurgitation, and difficulty swallowing.
• Peptic Ulcer Disease:
  • Results from the erosion of the stomach or duodenal lining due to excessive acid production or weakened mucosal defence.
  • Common causes include H. pylori infection and prolonged use of NSAIDs.
• Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome:
  • A rare condition characterized by gastrin-secreting tumours (gastrinomas) leading to excessive acid production and recurrent peptic ulcers.

Diagnosis and Treatment

• Diagnostic Methods:
  • Endoscopy: Used to visualize the oesophagus, stomach, and duodenum, and to obtain biopsies.
  • pH Monitoring: Measures the acidity in the oesophagus to diagnose GERD.
  • Blood Tests: Detect H. pylori infection and evaluate gastrin levels for Zollinger-Ellison syndrome.
• Treatment Options:
  • Antacids: Neutralize stomach acid to provide rapid relief from heartburn.
  • Proton Pump Inhibitors (PPIs): Reduce acid production by inhibiting the H⁺,K⁺-ATPase enzyme.
  • H2 Receptor Blockers: Reduce acid production by blocking histamine receptors on parietal cells.
  • Antibiotics: Used to treat H. pylori infection, often in combination with PPIs.
  • Lifestyle Modifications: Dietary changes, weight management, and avoiding triggers such as alcohol and smoking.

Summary

Acid secretion in the stomach is a complex process involving the coordinated action of parietal cells, neural signals, hormones, and local factors. Proper regulation of acid secretion is essential for effective digestion and protection against pathogens. Disorders related to acid secretion, such as GERD and peptic ulcers, can be effectively managed through a combination of medication, lifestyle modifications, and, in some cases, surgical interventions.

Continue generating